P B A C T I C E O F G A B D E N IN G .
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W ill be found in oui- Encyclopædia of Cottage, Fami, and Villa Arckiiecture and Furniture, § 2188,
7 he seasoning of timber by evaporating th e sap, which is done with th e greater rapidity by removing
part of the atmospheric pressure, and applying artiflcial heat, was considered by the late Mr. Tredgold
as the best oi all modes of seasoning ; eilectingin four or five weeks what by the common process would
require four or five years. "
5:)37. The season <f felling is commonly winter, for timber not to be disbarked ; but some for the
resinous tribe, recommend summer as being the season in which it is generally felled in the north of
Europe and in tho Alps. But the summer season is there adopted from necessity, as in winter the woods
are so filled np with snow th a t felling is hardly practicable. As the timber of these countries is generally
squared for th e market, the soft wood is chiefly removed, so th a t the season of felling does not
seem as to them to be of much consequence. Besides, the timber is never so full of sap in summer as
it is in spring and au tum n ; and, therefore, n ex t to mid-winter, midsummer m ay b e the n ex t bcst
time for telling all kinds of timber trees. Where th e trees are disbarked at the base a year or more
before felling, th e soft wood will be partially hardened ; but this practice is by no means general in
the north. °
5938. Knotoles, in a recent
the opinions of all the ancient
the common notion, that trees felled .......................... . ... ... ju.vcb uuaw
cut down at any other season of the year, is not true ; and that the method of barking standing trees iu
spring, and not felling them till the succeeding wintor, has not in any way realised th e expectations
formed of the plan. After describing all the different modes th a t have been adopted for seasoning
timber, he concludes, th a t the bcst mode of seasoning is to “ keep it in air, neither very dry nor very
moist ; and to protect it from the sun and rain by a roof raised sufficiently high over it so as to prevent
by this and other means, a rapid rush of a ir.” {Inquiry into the Means o f preserving the British Navy
from Dry Rot, ^c., by Knowles, Sec. to the Com. of Surveyors, chap. iii.)
5939. The. operation offeUing is performed either by digging an excavation round th e stem, and cuttmg
work on preserving the British Navy from Dry Bot, &c., after collecting
t and modern authors who have written on feliing timber, concludes, that
1 winter contain less of sap or of the vegetable juices than those
th e roots a t 2 ft. or 3 ft. distant from it, or by cutting over th e stem a t the surface. By the
former mode the root is obtained for use, and the ground more effectually cleared and prepared for the
roots of other adjoining trees, or whatever crop is to follow. Where the tree is intended to stole, which
can very seldom be advisable in (he case of cutting full-grown timber, or where there is some nicety in
taking It down so as not to injure other trees or adjoining objects, it is cut or sawn over, and the root
if to be removed, dug out afterwards. In cutting down large trees, in order to make the tre e fall the way
required, enter the cross-cut saw on that side of the tree it is intended to fall, nnd cut it about a third
part througi), making a large notch there with an axe ; then enter the saw a t the other side, and when
it IS cut so far as to admit a wedge, place the wedge exactly opposite the notch, and keep driving it slowly
till the tree is nearly cut through. It will fall exactly in the direction of the notch. {Monteath.)
5940. Disbranching. The tree, being felled, is n ex t divested of its branches, which are sorted into
fence-wood, fuel, ton-wood, &c., according to the kind of tree ; and the tru n k is generally preserved as
entire as possible for the purchaser. Sometimes it is cut in two, and the root-cut, or but end, being tho
most valuable, sold, for one class of purposes, a t a higher price, and the top-cuts, for others, somewhat
lower. Sometimes timber is purchased by private contract by th e foot or load in a growing state or
after being cut down ; in other cases regular sales are made annually, and the produce exposed for sale
by auction. It is measured by the cubic foot, fifty of which are a load ; and the calculated tables and
Measur- 's Guide, generally ” resorted ..— to, ......-----
are those of Hoppus.
,5941. The roots o . f trees are the last ,product we shall mention............. These ..................____________
should, in almost every case,
be effectually eradicated ' itpH ;: to i n aid nil! in in w which,h in h in th (-hn c n case o ao of n f very u qi-.. large 1qv.qq rootsLpiftting ynnit- i by , . . _______________wrë’d^eVrfttmg'by
i._.
gunpowder, tearing up by the hydrostatic press, or by a system of cords and pulleys moved by a wheel
and pimon, may be resorted to. Some compact ash or oak roots are occasionally in demand bv smiths,
leather-cutters, and others ; b u t in general roots should be reduced to pieces not exceeding 3’ ft long
and G in. in diameter, and put up in stacks, which in England are never less than 3 ft. every way but
commonly contain two cubic yards. These, when dry, are sold for fuel, or reduced to charcoal on the
spot. In eradicating and stacking up coppice-woods, it is common to allow a certain sum per sack
something for every acre of ground cleared ; and if there are no trees to bark, the allowances are also
made for the poles, faggots, &c., so th at no part o fth e operation is performed bv dav-work.
5942. The usual method of charring wood is as follows : * ’
5943. The wood beine collected near th e place intended for the operation, and cut into billets, generally
about 3 ft. in length, the pits or stacks are usually formed in this manner ; —A spot, adapted to the
purpose, of trom ahout 15 ft. or 20 ft. in diameter, of a conical form, is selected, and after being
properly levelled, a large billet of wood, split across a t one end, and pointed at th e other, is fixed in the
centre of the area, with its pointed extremity in th e earth, and two pieces of wood, insertod through the
clefts of the other end, forming four right angles : against these cross-pieces, four other billets of wood
are placed, one end on th e ground, and th e other leaning against the angles. A number of large and
straight billets are afterwards laid on th e ground, to form a floor, each being, as it wore, the radius of
the circular area ; on this lioor, a proper quantity of brush or small wood is strewed, to till up the in-
terstices, when the floor will be complete : and, in order to keep the billets in the same position in which
they were first arranged, pegs or stumps are driven into th e gronnd, in the circumference of the circle,
about I ft. distant from one another ; upon this floor a stage is built, with billets set upon one end,
somewhat inclining towards the central billet, and on the tops of tliese another floor is laid, in a hnri.
zontal direction, but of shorter billets, as the whole is intended, when finished, to form a cone. 7’he
whole is then coated over with turf, and the surface generally plastered with a mixture of earth and
charcoal-dust.
5944. Previous to the operation o f setting fire to the pile, the central billet in the upper stage is drawn
out, and pieces of dry combustible wood substituted in its place, to which the fire is applied. Great attention
is necessary during the process, in the proper management of the fire, and in immediately covering
up the apertures through which the flame obtrudes itself, until the operation be concluded, which is
generally effected in th e space of two or th ree days, according to circumstances. When the charcoal is
thought to be sufficiently burnt, which is easily known from the appearance of the smoke, and the fiâmes
no longer issuing with impetuosity through the vents, all the apertures are to be closed up very carefully
with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust, which, by excluding all access o fth e external air, prevents
the coal from being any farther consumed, and th e fire goes out of itself. In this condition it is suffered
to remain, till the whole is sufficiently cooled ; when the cover is removed, and the charcoal is taken
away. If the whole process is skilfully managed, the coals will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of
wood : some are said to have been so dexterous, as to char an arrow, without altering even the figure of
the feather. {Encyc. Brit. vol. v. a rt. Charcoal.)
5945. The method o f charring wood, fo r the making o f gunpowder, accordmg to an improved system,
adopted not many years ago, is, however, a much more costly operation, though the expense attending
it is amply compensated by th e superior excellence o fth e article when manufactured. It is done in iron
cylinders ; and in so complete a manner, that every particle of the wood is charred. 7'he oily or tarry
matter is also preserved, and may, so far as the quantity goes, be made use of instead of foreign ta r or
pitch. This mode of charring wood for making gunpowder is carried to the greatest perfection near
Pctworth in Sussex, and there is a m anufacture of a similar nature near Chester. {Gen. Rep. for Scotland,
vol. ii. p. 332.)
5946. The valuation of trees forms a distinct profession, and can only be acquired after much expe-
.Y Jl
rien c e ; like other valuations of property, it depends on a great variety of considerations, some of a
general, but th e greater part of a local, nature. All we shall here attempt is to give a few general ideas
which may be of use to the private cultivator or forester.
5947. I n valuing any plantation, the first thing is to know its contents in acres ; if this cannot be done
th e number of plants must be counted. If a young plantation (the trees of which are unfit for present
nse as timber) is to be valued, then its value a t any distant period, not exceeding twenty or twenty-five
ye.irs, must be estimated ; and whatever sum that estimate amounts to, the present value of th at sum
will give an idea of the value of the plantation, allowing liberally for accidents to the trees and otlier
unforeseen circumstances. 7'hus, suppose a plantation of oaks, intended as copse, or actually established
as such, to have grown four years, its present value would be n ex t to nothing; but if arrived at its
twentieth year, it would fetch 50Z. per acre. 7'hcn the question is, required the present value of 50Z. due
sixteen years hence, the market price of money being live per cent. ? and this, according to any of the
modern annuity tables (say Bailey's, 4to. 1808. tab. iv.), is 22Z. 18s. This principle is applicable to all
kinds of valuing by anticipation ; and there is no other mode of valuing applicable to j'oung plantations.
The benefits derived from the trees in th e way of shelter and ornament, are to be estimated in valuing
the territory, and are foreign to the present purpose, which has for its object tree-produce only.
5948. I n valuing saleable trees of any kind, their number per acre, or their total number by enumeration,
being ascertained, and the kinds and sizes classed, then each class is to be estimated according to
its worth as timber, fence-wood, fuel, bark, &c. “ In a coppice-wood which cannot readily be measured,
th e readiest method of counting the stools is, to cause two men to take a line, say about 100 ft. long,
or more, and passing the line round as many of the stools as it will enclose, the one man standing still
while the other moves round a new number of stools, and count always the stools betwixt the two lines,
causing the onc man to move the one time with the line, whilst the other man stands still, and so on
alternately; the valuator a t the same time taking care to average every twenty stools as they go on,
before losing sight of the counted stools. This, way, too, is a very speedy and sure method of counting
th e number of trees in any plantation. Or, the stools of a coppice-wood may be counted and averaged
by two men going parallel to each other, and the person valuing going betwixt them ; the two men
putting up marks with moss, or pieces of white paper, on a branch of the stools ; the one man going
always back by the last-laid marks, and the valuator counting aud averaging the stools betwixt the
newly-laid and the late-laid marks ; counting and averaging the stools always as the men go on, taking
only twenty, or even ten stools a t a time. To those who have been in the practice of doing this frequently,
it will be found very easj', and will be done very speedily, and with a very considerable degree
of accuracy. The proper method of learning to do this correctly is, when a person cuts an oak wood
for the first time (or, even were th e work repeated several times), he should then, in order to make
himself perfectly acquainted with ascertaining the average quantity o fb a rk that a stool, or even a stem
o f a stool, will produce, go before th e peelers, and select a stool or stem : after having examined it
narrowly, ho supposes it to produce a certain quantity of bark, and marks this clown in his m emorandum-
book. He then causes a person to peel it by itself, dry it, and carefully tie it up, and weigh it, and
compare it with the weight he supposed it to produce, and he will at once see how near his calculation
comes to the tru th . A stem of oak from a natural stool, suppose it to measure in girth 2 in., by 7 ft.
long, will contain.two solid inches, and onc third of an inch, according to the measurement of Hoppus.
This stem or shoot will produce 2 lbs. 2oz. ofb a rk . Again, a stem or shoot of natural oak, measuring
tain one solid foot of wood, 4 in. in girth, by 9 ft. in length, will be found to cont and will produce
13J lbs. o fb a rk .” {Forester's Guide, p. 170.)
594.9... ...W....h..e..n. „g.r..o..w...i.n. og .t.r..e.e..s.. .a...r.e.. ..v..a..l.u..e..d..,. . an al lowan ce iss made from their cubic contents for the bark.
The rule given by Monteath is, “ when the girth or circumference is any thing from 12 in. up to 24 in.,
then deduct 2 in .; from 24 in. to 36 in., 3 i n . ; from 36 in. to 48in., 4 i n . ; from 48in. to 72in., 5 i n . ; and
above 72 In., 6 in .” “ These deductions,” he says, “ will be found to answer in ahnost all trees ; unless
in such as are very old, and have rough and corky barks, or barks covered with moss, when an extra
allowance is to be made.” {Forestei-’s Guide, p. 180.) “ Many persons,” the same author observes, “ ir.
valuing measurable oak trees, proceed on the datum that every cubic foot of timber will produce a stone
(16 lbs.) of bark. This,” he says, “ is not always co rrec t; ” and he states the foliowing facts from his
wn experience, with a view to assist beginners in ascertaining the quantity of bark from various trees :
—“An oak tree, about forty years old, measured down to 4J in. side of the square, and weighing only the
bark peeled ofTf tthe timber that is measured, without including any of the bark of the spray, k c ., every
foot of measured timber will produce from 9 lbs. to 11 lbs. of bark. An oak tree, of eighty years olcC
weighing only the bark peeled off the measurable timber, as above, every foot will produce from 10 lbs.
to 13 lbs. of bark. Every foot of large birch timber, peeled as above, will produce 14 lbs. of bark. Every
foot of m ountain ash, as above, will produce 11J lbs. of bark. Every fbot of the willow, iinles.s
tree, will produce from 9 lbs. to 11 Ibr ^ ..... q--. ./-» » q
duce from 7 lbs. to 9 lbs. o fb a rk
and shoot, down as small as 1
like that of every other article
. „ .................. 'ory old
Every foot of larch fir, not exceeding thirty years old, will proved
o ’
T h e timber of trees, particulariy the oak, i Jsf lp ^ e\ eled ou„. .. t-,. f . oervo . erroly- branch
............
■ 1 circumference.” {Forester's Guide, p. 189.) The price of timber,
general use, varies with the supply and demand ; and is easily ascertained
from the timber-merchauts a t the different sea-ports ; as is that of bark, charcoal, and iirewood
from the tanners and coal-merchants.
5950. To facilitate the measuring o f standing timber, Jlonte ath has invented a very ingenious machine
{fig. 966.). It consists of a wheel, or perambulator, about 8 in. in diameter, with a bell ta ) on the end
966
of its axle ; a t the end of every foot gone over bv
the serrated circumference of riie perambulator,
. . . . , spring (6); the
sound of this bell will be heara from the top of
the highest tree . A forked handle (c) works on
the top of the main axle on each side of the whe el;
one ot a set of connecting rods {e, h) goes into it,
and is fixed with a screw making a swivel joint,
and by screwing the nut firm, the wheel can be
set to any position, and it will work equally well
any way. A small hand {d), in the circle of the
triangular spring, points to the inches ov quarters
of an inch on the wheel, and tells wliat exceeds
th e inch after a lesser spring {e), which strikes at
every inch, has struck the bell. The circumference
of tiie wheel ( / ) measures 2 ft. 7’he rods for
working the measuring machine are each 3 ft.
long, and i in. in diameter, with connecting screws
of brass on each ond of them ; so that as many as
are required for any length or height can be easily
screwed into each other. The other small rods
for taking th e length of the tree, as also of its
branches, are only flve eighths of an inch in diameter: each rod is 3 ft. long, and goes together with
connecting screws of brass. The rods are painted black, aud divided into feet and inches, with white
letters ; so that, by connecting any number of th e rods together that may be required, and by applying
them to the tree or branches (k), you can take th e exact length in a speedy, accurate, anS simple
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