duty is 11 ore per kg (from 1916 it is to be 101/ 3, and from 1918 10 ore),
corresponding to 37 % of the value, and for margarine 15 ore, or 15 % of the
value.
As regards general industries, the most important- duties are those on textiles.
These are, however, so numerous, that it is impossible to enumerate the different
rates. The ad valorem duty on different kinds of yarns, however, may be
estimated at about 7 on silk fabrics it is 14 % on cotton fabrics 18 % and
on woolen fabrics 20 %. The duty on boots and shoes is 6 kronor per kg; as
the boots and shoes imported are of the more expensive sorts, this only represents
25 % of the value; this figure, however, includes the protective duties for the
domestic tanning industry. The duty on galoshes is l ’ao kronor per kg, or 25 %
of the value. Further, it might be mentioned that the duty on glass-wares is
V* to V3 of the value; on cement 60 ore per quintal, representing above 20 %
of the value; on semi-manufactured steel and iron 16 %, if duty-free goods are
deducted, otherwise 5 %; for iron and steel goods, if g&ods exempt from duty
are deducted, 25 %, otherwise 14 %. For machinery in some cases the ad
valorem duty of 10 % has been retained, and in no case must the duty fall
below 5 % of the value; on an average it amounts to 10 %.
As to the benefit which various industries receive from the duties, this can be
estimated only in certain cases. The sugar-duty may be taken by way*of
example. The sugar factories sell more than 130 million kg of sugar annually,
and as the price is usually raised above that of foreign sugar, up to the limit,
or very nearly to the limit which the duty allows of, the Swedish people pay
to the sugar factories and the sugar-beet growers in the shape of higher prices
11 ore per kg, i. e. between 14 and 15 million kronor per annum. Most o f the
other industries, however, do not permit of an estimate of this kind being made,
until exhaustive investigations, which are not yet made, have been instituted.
Duties are intended, of course, to protect home production and to restrict
import. It is thus quite natural that the State should also encourage the sale
of Swedish goods to foreign countries, and endeavour to increase the export
trade. Formerly, export premiums were resorted to for this puiqiose. These
have now been abolished, but, as a set-off, countries with State railways, more
particularly Germany, have introduced remarkably low export tariffs. Sweden
resolved, in 1912, to introduce these low export rates, principally for iron and
steel, manufactures of iron, machinery, paper, and cardboard. These tariffs are,
however, merely provisional and are likely to be considerably extended. ^ (Of.
also the preceding section on Customs-Tariff Legislation and Customs-House
Establishments.)
Inland Trade.
The Inland Trade of Sweden has at all times been of great importance
for the development of the country. Considerably facilitated by the excellent
waterways — which have to a certain extent been a necessary
factor in the country’s onward march in civilization — the communications
between the different parts of the country have always been particularly
brisk. Still more has inland trade been forwarded by the modern means
of communication on land, and, and by liberal trade-legislation, which did
away with the guild-system, with its clogging restrictions on trade.
The total number of traders in Sweden, which in 1845 amounted to
only some 7 000, had increased to 37 729 in 1911, employing 54 591 hands
(more recent figures not available).
During the greater part of the Middle Ages, and far long afterwards, attempts
were made to centralize practically all trade in the towns, and one of the
factors in this policy was the ban on anything which could be called rural
trading. As early as during the latter half of the 13th century, we meet with
a prohibition against such trading. The town markets were the only places
where country people were allowed to dispose of their goods; though in a few
cases permission was given for the- exercise of trade outside the towns. In the
Swedish towns, markets and market days were instituted, which often attracted
people from distant regions, such as, the fairs at Uppsala, Enkoping, Vasteras,
Örebro, Strangnas, Vaxjo, etc. Gustavus Vasa rendered more stringent the old
prohibitions against rural trading. Thus, according to an edict of 1546, whoever
was caught exercising such unlawful trade for the third time was punished
with death. Exceptions were made only for the most northerly parts of the
country. In consideration of the fact that there were no towns up there, a
few rural traders were permitted in every parish; otherwise the country people
had to go to the towns to buy or sell. Later on, however, several exceptions
were made from these stringent - regulations against rural trading; thus, for
example, in 1569 the nobles obtained the right of trading in the produce from
their own estates.
In the beginning of Gustavus Adolphus’ reign, the principles which can be
traced in Gustavus I ’s measures were strengthened and found expression in the
trade ordinances of 1614 and 1617. By the terms of the former of these, inland
trade was reserved to inland towns, while foreign trade was exclusively
allotted to the staple towns. By the latter of these ordinances, the regulations
were so far modified that the staple towns acquired the right to sell their wares
direct to the country people at the markets of the inland towns, by which the
trade of the inland towns became considerably curtailed.
Few sovereigns have exerted themselves to such an extent to develop the inland
trade of Sweden as Gustavus Adolphus, even though the results did not
correspond to the magnitude. of his efforts. Inland trade was especially checked
by the “petty customs“, imposed in 1622 and not abolished until 1810, which
were levied on all “eatable and perishable” home wares brought to any market
in the kingdom. However, the petty customs were one of the chief causes of
the constitution of new towns, which was continued by Axel Oxenstierna after
the example of.Gustavus Adolphus.
For a long time, the inland trade of Sweden continued in the old ruts. Still,
in the beginning of the Period of Liberty, the statutes against rural trading
were revived, and the peasantry were forbidden to carry on coastal shipping by
means of sloops. By degrees, however, the oppressive shackels were loosened. In
1748, the Government declared that “hereafter provincial governors must not lay
any obstacles in the way of the towns and their trade and industry, by imposing
any prohibitions against the export in their vessels of wares to Stockholm and
other towns in the country”. After the notable Riksdag of 1765— 66, a law
was issued on the 20th of November, 1766, according to which country people
were declared to be free to carry on shipping to all places within the kingdom
and to dispose of their wares and agricultural products at any place or places
they deemed suitable. During Gustavus H i’s reign also, matters developed in
the same direction. The trade in grain was freed from restrictions in 1775, so
that everybody, irrespective of rank or grade, was allowed to trade in grain,
both in town and country.
In 1832, the inland shipping of the coast population was freed from all restrictions,
and they were even given the right to sail to Finland, Norway, and
Denmark. Of far greater importance were the changes introduced in 1846.
By the ordinances of Dec. 22, the same year, opportunities were afforded for