the general voice has most honoured and respected, there is but one
opinion on this Linnean axiom. Nearly every writer, in fact, who
now aims at distinction by investigating natural affinities, prosecutes
this “ grand, this ulterior object * and it has justly been pronounced
that a correct knowledge of the natural system is the “ primum and
ultimum of true science f / ’
Now it is a fact no less remarkable than true, that while the importance
of studying the general laws of creation becomes every day more
apparent, and its necessity is more and more insisted upon, still that
our knowledge of those laws during the last ten years has remained
completely stationary. To show upon what foundation this assertion
rests, it will be necessary to make a slight digression.
It was in the year 1819 that the attention of Zoologists was
awakened by the appearance of the celebrated Horoe Entomologies of
the younger Alacleay ; and this was followed, two years afterwards, by
the erudite Sy sterna Mycologicum of Elias Fries, one of the greatest
Botanists of Germany. The authority of the Systema Natures, so
far as regards natural arrangement, had already been severely shaken
by the Règne Animal of the great Guvier,—not to mention in Ornithology
the writings of Le Vaillant. But the system of the great
Swede was now to be annihilated.
Differing in their details, and each unconscious of the other’s sentiments,
it is no less extraordinary than interesting to trace the perfect
agreement of these eminent men on two great and primary principles :
first, that the natural series of affinities throughout all the grand divisions
of Nature is circular ; and secondly, that every minor division or
group forms its. own peculiar circle.
In estimating the value of these theories, it may be said that the
first is assumed ; since, until the whole of the animal or the vegetable
kingdom has been analysed, the true course of affinity might be conjectured,
but could not be demonstrated. It is, however, an assumption
fully warranted by the second conclusion : this latter resting
entirely upon analysis, and therefore capable, in such groups as have
* Annul osa Jav., Pref. xii. f Kirby, Tntr. to Entom., p. 4, 547.
been so analysed, of mathematical demonstration. It would be presumptuous
in one, whose knowledge of Botany is very limited, to say
how far Mr. Fries has succeeded in demonstrating his second proposition
; but I may venture to express an opinion that, in the genera
Phansus and Scarabsus, Mr. Macleay has established it most completely.
The promulgation of a theory so novel, and so calculated to destroy
all received opinions on natural arrangement, gave rise, as might be
expected, to much difference of sentiment, particularly among the
Naturalists of Britain. Nearly all those whose writings had placed
them in the foremost ranks, and who had long viewed the systems
of the day as mere helps to the memory, admitted, either wholly or
in part, the correctness of Mr. Macleay’s views. Others, however,
have rejected all such ideas on circular affinities or definite divisions ;
but hitherto these objections have only been supported by partial
or abstract reasoning.
Twelve years have now elapsed since the publication of the Horae
Entomologies. During this period, some of the most zealous disciples
of its author have applied the theory of their master to various departments
of Zoology, with different degrees of success. A great insight
has thus been gained into several natural groups ; and, in many cases,
their systems have made a much more correct approximation to what
we see in Nature, than did those of their predecessors. But, without
detracting from the just merit of these attempts, we must not be blind
to the fact, that they exhibit nothing more than the mere application
of a theory; without bringing to light, or without even attempting the
discovery, of a single new principle in natural arrangement. The
track which had been marked out in the Hors Entomologies has in
no one instance been intentionally deviated from ; and during this
long period not the slightest discovery in the general laws of creation
has been effected.
I have thus shown in what respect the philosophy of Zoology has
remained stationary ; but it might even be said to have retrograded.
One of the great characteristics, apparent in every page of the Hors
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