cases the species is the same, and th e parent individuals were not even vai'ieties of one another,
except so far as regards hardiness ; in other words, the specific character remains unaltered in spite
of the change of constitution, jn s t as the climate of one part of the globe disagrees ivith the human
race of another, and is even fatal to it.
Such ai’e a few of the leading phenomena or facts th a t appear to me to give tlie greatest weight
to the opinion tha t indiriduals of a species are all derived from one parent : for such arguments as
the New Zealand Flora famishes, I must refer my readers to the following chapter. I would again
remind the student th a t the hasty adoption of any of these theories is not advisable : plants should
he largely collected, and studied both in the liring and diied states, aud the result of their dissection
noted, without reference to any speculations, which are too apt to lead the inquirer away from the
rigorous investigation of details, from which alone tru th can he elicited. When however the opportunity
or necessity arises for combining results, and presenting them in tha t systematic form which
can alone render them available for the pui’poses of science, it becomes necessary for the generalizer
to proceed upon some determinate principle; and I cannot conclude this part of the subject better
than by adopting the words of the most able of Transatlantic botanists, who is no less sound as a
generalizer than profound in his knowledge of details:— “ All classification and system in Natural
History rests upon the fundamental idea of the original creation of certain forms, which have n a tu rally
been perpetuated unchaugcd, or with such changes only as we may conceive or prove to have
arisen from varying physical influences, accidental cfrcumstances, or from cultivation*."
Species vary in a state of nature more than is usually supposed.
The riews entertained as to the limitation of species appear to be quite arbitrary : no general
piinciples have been discovered for the guidance of the systematist ; and those th a t are adopted vary
in kind and in value with every natural group. I t is not therefore sui'prising th a t two naturalists,
taking opposite riews of the value of characters, should so treat a variable genus th a t their conclusions
as to the limits of its species should be wholly irreconcilable. Some naturalists consider
every minute character, if only tolerably constant or even prevalent, as of specific value; they
consider two or more doubtful species to be distinct till they are proved to be one ; they limit the
ranges of distribution, and regard plants from widely severed localities as almost necessarily distinct ;
they do not allow for the effects of local peculiarities in temperature, humidity, soil, or exposure, except
they can absolutely trace the cause to the effect ; and they hence attach great importance to
habit, stature, colour, hairiness, period of flowering, etc. These riews, whether acknowledged or not,
are practically carried out in many of the local floras of Europe, and by some of the most acute and
observant botanists of the day ; and it is difficult to over-estimate the amount of synonymy and confusion
which they have introduced into the nomenclature of some of the commonest and m ost variable of
plants. In such bauds the New Zealand genera Coprosma, Celmisia, Epilobium, etc., may he indefinitely
extended. The principles I have adopted are opposed to tliese : I have based my conclusions
species from 10,000 are tender. The common scarlet 'Rhododendron of Nepal and tlie North-west Himalaya is
tender, but seedlings of the same species from Sikkim, whose parents grew at a greater elevation, have proved
perfectly hardy.
* Botanical Text-book, p. 303, by Professor Asa Gray, of Cambridge University, U.S.
on this subject upon a very extensive examination of living plants in all latitudes, with my attention
particularly directed to the influence of external causes, not only on the general phenomena of vege a-
tiou, hnt also upon individuals. Added to this, I have paid a great deal of a ttention to vanah e
plants, both of tropical and temperate climates, and studied them in a living state, both wild and cultivated
and also in the herbarium. The result of my observations is, th a t differences of habit, colour
li’airitiess and outline of leaves, and minute characters drawn from other organs th an those of
reproduction, are generally fallacious as specific marks, being attributable to external causes, and easily
obliterated under cultivation. I t has hence been my plan to group the individuals of a genus winch
I assume after careful examination to contain many species whose limits I cannot define, th a t the
species shall have the same relative value as those have of allied genera whose specific characters are
evident. I doing so I believe I'h av e followed th e practice of every systematist of large experience
and acknowledged judgment since the days of Linmeus, as Bentliam, Brown, the De Candolles,
Decaisne, Asa Gray, Jussieu, Bindley, and the Hicliards; names which include not only the most
learned systematists, h u t the most profound anatomists and physiologists. I am far from supposing
th a t the same materials of a difficult gi-oup would receive precisely simüar treatment at the hands of
each of these eminent men ; h u t their results would so closely approximate as to be in harmony with
each other, and available for scientific piu-poses: with all, the tendency wmuld be to regard dubious
speeies as vai-ieties, to take enlarged views of the range and variation of species, and to weigh
characters not only j!)«- se, hut with reference to those which prevail in the Order to which the species
under consideration belong.
In working up incomplete floras especially, I believe it to be of the utmost importance to adopt
such a course, and to resist steadily the temptation to multiply names, for it is practically very difficult
to expunge a species founded on an error of judgment or observation*. There is further an in herent
tendency in every one occupied with specialities to exaggerate th e value of his materials and
labours, whence it happens, th a t botanists engaged exclusively upon local floras are at issue with those
of more extended experience, the former considering as species what the la tte r call varieties, and
what the la tte r suspect to be an introduced plant the former are prone to consider a native. There is
much to be said on both sides of such questions: the local botanist looks closer, perceives sooner,
and often appreciates better, inconspicuous organs and characters, wdiicb are overlooked or too
hastily dismissed by the botanist occupied with those higher branches of the science, which demand
a wider range of observation and broader views of specialities; and there is no doubt b u t th a t the
tru th can only he arrived at through their joint labom-s; for a good observer is one thing, and the
knowledge and experience required to make use of facts for piurposes of geueralization, a u o th e r:
minute differences liowovcr, wdion long dwelt upon, become magnified and assume undue value, and
the general botanist must always receive with distrust the conclusions deduced from a few species
of a large genus, or from a few specimens of a widely distributed plant.
I have been led to dwell at length upon this point, because I feel sure the Now Zealand student
will at first find it difficult to agree with me in mauy cases, as for instance on so protean a P e rn as
Lomaría procera, wdiosc varieties (to an inoxpcrionced eye) are more dissimilar than are other species
of the same genus. In this (and in many similar cases) he must bear m muid th a t I have examined
• The state of the British llora proves not only this, but further, that one sueh error leads to many more of
the like kind ; students are led to over-estimate inconstant characters, to take a narrow view of the importance and
end of Imtany, and to throw away time upon profitless discussions about the difference between infinitely variable
forms of plants, of wliose identity really learned botanists have no doubt whatever.