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j
I :
o r axioms ; a n d th e y sh a ll h av e th e ad v a n tag e o f b e in g simple, in te llig ib le , a n d as li ttl e exposed to
th e ch a rg e o f b e in g sp ecu lativ e, as an y o f th a t n a tu r e c a n be. I sh a ll a ssume th e n—
§ 1. T h a t all th e in d iv id u a ls o f a species (as I a ttem p t to con fin e th e te rm ) h av e p ro c e ed ed
from o n e p a r e n t (or p a ir), a n d th a t th e y r e ta in th e ir d is tin c tiv e (specific) ch a ra c te rs.
§ 2. T h a t species v a ry m o re th a n is g en e ra lly a dm itte d to b e th e case.
§ 3. T h a t th e y a re also m u c h m o re widely d is trib u te d th a n is u su a lly supposed.
§ 4. T h a t th e ir d is trib u tio n h a s b e e n effected b y n a tiu 'a l cau ses ; b u t th a t th e se a re n o t n e c e ss
a rily th e same as th o se to wh ich th e y a re n ow exposed.
§ 1 .
A lth o u g h in th is F lo ra I have pro ceed ed o n th e a s sum p tio n th a t species, h owever th e y o rig in a te d
o r w e re c re a ted , h av e b e e n h a n d e d d own to u s as su ch , an d th a t aU th e iu d iv id u a ls o f a u n isex u a l
p la n t h av e p ro c e ed ed from o n e in d iv id u a l, a n d a ll o f a b isex u a l from a sin g le pair-, I w ish i t to h e
d is tin c tly u n d e rs to o d th a t I do n o t p u t th is fo rw a rd in te n d in g i t to b e in te rp re te d in to a n avowal o f
th e ad o p tio n o f a fixed o r rm a lte ra h le opin io n o n m y p a rt. W h e th e r o r n o t su ch a th e o ry b e co n s
o n a n t w ith th a t g r e a t m y s te ry , th e o rig in o f o rg an ic b ein g s, an im a te a n d in a n im a te , is n o t th e p o in t
I wo u ld h e re dweU u p o n ; b u t th e fa c t th a t i t ap p e a rs to me e s sen tia l th a t th e s y s tem a tis t sh o u ld
keep some su ch d efin ite id e a c o n s ta n tly before h im , to give u n ity to h is d e s ig n , a n d to g u id e h im in
th e m o re o r less a rb itr a ry re s tric tio n o f th e species o f a v a riab le g en u s , to w h ich h e is u n fo rtu n a te ly
often o b lig ed to re s o rt. E x c e p t h e a c t u p o n th e id e a th a t fo r p ra c tic a l p u rp o se s a t an y r a t e species
a re c o n s ta n t, h e c a n n ev e r h o p e to give th a t p recisio n to h is c h a ra c te rs o f o rg an s a n d fu n c tio n s wh ich
is n e c e ssa iy to re n d e r h is d esc rip tio n s u se fu l to o th e rs ; fo r in g ro u p s w h e re th e lim its o f species
c a n n o t be tra c e d (or, w h a t am o u n ts to th e same th in g in th e o p in io n o f m a n y , w h e re th e y do n o t
ex ist), th e o b je c t o f th e s y s tem a tis t is th e same as in g ro u p s w h e re th e y a re obvious,— to th row th e ir
fo rm s in to a n a tu r a l a rra n g em e n t, a n d to in d ic a te th em b y ta n g ib le c h a ra c te rs, whose v a lu e is ap p ro x im
a te ly re la tiv e to w h a t p rev ails in g e n e ra w h e re th e lim ita tio n o f species is m o re ap p a re n t.
I n th e p re s e n t im p e rfe c t s ta te o f o u r k n ow led g e o f th e b o ta n y o f an y la rg e area , we h av e n o t
th e m a te ria ls fo r solving th e g re a t q u e stio n s as to th e o rig in a n d p e rm an en c e o f species, u p o n
g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s. A c a re fu l com p a ra tiv e s tu d y o f th e F lo ra s o f tem p e ra te N o r th A m e ric a an d
E u ro p e , o r o f an y s im ila rly ex ten siv e co u n trie s , would th row g re a t lig h t o n th is s u b je c t; o r a s tu d y
o f th e v a ria tio n s o f th o se p la n ts (and th e y a re n o t a few) w h ich a re com m o n to th e five g re a t divisions
o f th e globe. B u t th e se b ran ch e s o f b o ta n y a re so n eg le c ted , th a t I am n o t a c q u a in te d w ith a B ritis h *
o r C o n tin e n ta l F lo ra , w h ich a ttem p ts to give a g en e ra l view o f th e v a ria tio n an d d is trib u tio n o f th e
species d escribed in it. I have to some ex te n t a ttem p te d th is fo r th e N ew Z e a lan d F lo r a ; b u t i t would
h av e b e e n m a n ife s tly impossible to h av e conc luded th is w o rk w ith in a re a so n ab le tim e , h ad I m ad e a
* In Mr. Hewett Watson’s ‘ Outlines of the Geographical Distribution of British Plants,’ and ' Cybele Britannica,’
will be found, amongst a mass of valuable information respecting the Flora of the British Isles, the only de-
tmled account of the distribution of species within our own shores, and (in the first-mentioned work) a sketch of their
dispersion over the globe as far as was then known. I am given to understand that Mr. Watson is still engaged on
the subject, and most sincerely hope that he is so, A more important desideratum to the British Flora cannot be
named, nor one that would tend more to give that direction to the studies of our local botanists, which is so
grievously wanted : leading them to the investigation of species as members of the vegetable kingdom, and not as
inhabitants of the British Isles only.
c ritic a l ex am in a tio n o f all th e fo rm s from a lh c o u n trie s , o f th o s e N ew Z e a la n d species w h ich a re
co sm o p o lita n ; su ch o p e ra tio n s m u s t n e c e ss a rily be le ft to m y su ccesso rs, w h o m a y re c e iv e m a n y o f
m y rem a rk s o n th e d isp e rsio n o f th e species sim p ly as su g g e stio n s.
A w an t o f m a te ria ls is n o t, h owev er, m y o n ly re a so n fo r w ith h o ld in g a d e c id ed a s s e n t to th e riew
I h av e e n u n c ia te d . T h e re a re o th e r th e o rie s w h ich c la im m o re o r le ss c o n s id e ra tio n from ev e ry u n p
re ju d ic ed n a tu r a li s t ; a n d th e r e a re su ch th e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l difficulties (and p e rh a p s im p o s sib
ilities) in th e way o f o u r com in g to a n y co n c lu s io n s as to th e lim its o f th e species o f m a n y g en e ra ,
as give co lo u r to th e a s sum p tio n th a t th e y h av e n o p e rm a n e n tly re co g n iz ab le lim its . A s ta tem e n t
o f some o f th e s e views a n d difficulties m a y b e th e m e a n s o f throAving m u c h lig h t o n th is s u b je c t; a n d
th e y a re well w o rth y o f th e c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e N ew Z e a lan d b o ta n is t; fo r is la n d s s itu a te d fa r from
co n tin e n ts , a n d in th e m id s t o f g r e a t o ce ans, offer m a n y fav o u rab le p o in ts from w h ich to s t a r t in
su ch in v e stig a tio n s .
1. V e ry m a n y n a tu r a lis ts co n s id e r species as p e rm a n e n tly d is tin c t, h u t d em a n d a p lu r a lity oL
p a re n ts to a c c o u n t fo r th e ir ex ten siv e d is trib u tio n .
3. A n o th e r la rg e class do n o t co n s id e r species as p e rm a n e n t a t aU, a n d h o ld th a t w h a t a re ca lled
su ch , a re s tirp e s o r ra c e s (lik e th o s e o f m a n , a n d su ch o f th e low e r an im a ls as dogs, h o rs e s , e tc .),
su b je c t to ch a n g e o r o b lite ra tio n , w h ic h h av e b e e n e ith e r a c c id en ta lly lu 'o d u ced , o r dev e lo p ed a c co rd in
g to some th e o re tic a l law.
3. A th i r d class believe in a p ro g ressiv e d ev e lo pm en t o f aU o rg an iz ed n a tu re , from th e c e ll to an
id e a l ty p e o f p e rfe c tio n , tow a rd s w h ich m a n is th e la s t step re a c h ed .
4. O th e rs su b sc rib e to v a rio u s sh ad e s o f th e s e o p in io n s, o r b le n d th em as fa r as th e y c o n s is te n tly
c a n ; some, ta k in g even a m u c h la rg e r view o f th e lim its o f v a ria b ility c o n s is te n t w ith p e rm a n e n c e o f
ty p e th a n I pro fess to h av e ad o p ted , th in k g e n e ra o f p la n ts p e rm a n e n t ty p e s, a n d species a c c id en ta lly
p ro d u c ed v a rie tie s.
A rg um e n ts in fav o u r o f th e s e views a re n o t w an tin g , d e riv ed b o th from th e a n im a l a n d v eg e tab le
k in g d om s ; th e ch ie f o f w h ich a rc d raw n from a la rg e class o f well e s ta b lish e d facts, u p o n th e h e a rin g s
o f w h ich th e m o s t d is tin g u ish ed a n d c a n d id n a tu r a lis ts ai’e d iv id ed in o p in io n : su ch a re— th e g r e a t
n um b e r o f g e n e ra whose species h av e baffled aU a ttem p ts a t c irc um s c rip tio n b y fixed c h a ra c te rs ,—
th e fa c ility w ith w h ich b re ed s o f c e rta in p la n ts an d an im a ls m a y b e p ro p a g a te d , a n d th e com p a ra tiv e
c e rta in ty u d th w h ich some few v a rie tie s a re rep ro d u c e d u n d e r fav o u rab le c ircum s tan c e s ,— th e g re a t
fa c ility w ith w h ich m a n y p la n ts h y b rid iz e , a n d th e fa c t o f h y b rid s h a v in g p ro v ed fe r tile ,— th e su d d en
ap p e a ran c e a n d u n ex p la in ed cau se o f m a n y v a rie tie s o r s p o rts ,— a n d th e d ifficu lty o f a c c o u n tin g for
th e ex isten ce o f p la n ts a n d an im a ls in tw o o r m o re lo c a litie s, b e tw e en wh ich th e y c a n n o t h av e b e e n
tra n sp o rte d b y n a tu r a l cau ses now in o p e ra tio n . T h e se a re a ll q u e s tio n s r e la tin g to th e diffusion
an d v a ria tio n o f species, wh ich udll b e d iscussed h e re a n d in th e fo llowin g section.
A rg um e n ts in fav o u r o f th e sin g le c re a tio n , a n d p e rm a n e n c e o f species, a re all b ased u p o n
g en e ra l c o n s id e ra tio n s o f th e p h e n om e n a o f d is trib u tio n . C om p a ra tiv e a n a tom y , wh ich h a s th row n
su ch g re a t lig h t u p o n th is b ra n c h o f s tu d y in th e s is te r k in g d om , h a s n o t d o n e so m u c h for p l a n t s ;
th is a rise s from sev eral c a u s e s :— 1. T h e h a b its o f allied p la n ts do n o t differ so rem a rk a b ly as th o s e
o f an im a ls, an d th e r e is co n s eq u en tly le ss m o d ific a tio n o f th e ir fu n c tio n a l o rg an s .— 2. T h e re la tio n
o f th e se m o d ifica tio n s to th e h a b its a n d w an ts o f th e species, is in th e an im a l k in g d om d ire c tly
app rec iab le, b u t in p la n ts no su ch co n n e c tio n c an be tr a c e d * .— 3. T h e in d iv id u a l o rg au s o f su p p o rt,
* The structure of woods oilers many illustrations of this; very closely allied plants (especially Legiminosa)
differing entirely in the nature, arrangement, and development of the vascular and cellular tissues of their trunks.
c