north-western direction, embraces most of the Philippines up to the 20th° of north
latitude. A range of mountains in a longitudinal direction runs through the centre
of Java. The whole of this main range is volcanic, the peaks of which vary from the
height of near 4000 to near 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. No fewer than 46
of these peaks are volcanos, 20 of which are in a state of more or less activity. The
separate mountains of the range are of a conical form, having a central tube or
chimney, ending in a crater. The craters are sometimes of great extent, and their
walls illustrate the structure of the mountains, which is either vertical and irregularly
columnar, or disposed in oblique or horizontal strata.
My friend, Dr. Horsfield, of whose account of the geology of Java I am now giving
an abstract, renders the following account of the most remarkable crater in Java, that
of the Tenger mountain, in the eastern part of the island. “ This mountain,” says
he, “ constitutes one of the most remarkable volcanos of the island. I t rises from
a very large base, in a gentle slope, with gradually extending ridges. The summit,
seen from a distance, is less conical than most of the other principal volcanos, varying
in height, at different points, from 7000 to 8000 feet. The crater is not at the
summit, but more than 1000 feet below the highest point ; and consists of a large
excavation of an irregularly circular form, surrounded on all sides by a range of
hills of different elevations. I t is by far the largest crater in the island, and perhaps
exceeds every other crater on the globe. It constitutes an immense gulf, the bottom
of which is level, and denominated by the natives the dasar, (the floor). This is
naked and covered with sand throughout ; in one portion, near the middle, the sand
is loose and blown by the wind into slight ridges, and to this the natives give the
name of sâgara-wâdi, literally ‘ sea of sand.’ The largest diameter of the crater is,
according to my estimate, full three miles. Prom its interior, and towards the
middle, there rise several conical peaks, or distinct volcanos. The chief of these,
the mountain Brama, (from the Hindu god, Brama, whose emblem is fire,) is a perfectly
regular cone, and still in partial activity, with occasional eruptions. I t is
surrounded on one side by the ‘sea of sand,’ above mentioned. Adjoining to it
stands another conical peak, more than 1000 feet high, named Watangan, (hall of
audience,) or Widadaren, (abode of celestial nymphs), covered externally with
sand,—quite naked, and on account of its steepness, its top has never been examined.
At a small distance from the Brama rises a smaller cone, called
Butak, (the bald). The two last have not exhibited any volcanic activity in
recent times.
“ The Brama, which rises from the middle of the Dasar as a regular cone, is also
covered with sand, and is marked with regular parallel grooves and ridges : its height
is above 600 feet. The ascent, though arduous, is facilitated by steps which the
natives have made in the sandy covering. On reaching the summit, I was surprised
by finding myself suddenly at the brink of an immense funnel, having a circumference
of about one mile, and a depth of above 600 feet. Its form is, on the whole,
regular ; the interior walls are stratified with undulating layers of sand, and volcanic
débris of different colours, grey, reddish, and black. The sides converge to a small
bottom, apparently about twenty yards in diameter, containing a greenish fluid, from
which volumes of smoke ascend. While standing at the brink, several outbursts
occurred which shook the mountain, and were accompanied by a rumbling noise
resembling distant thunder.
“ The range of hills surrounding the Dasar is very steep, and elevated to the north :
at the opposite point it is lower, and affords a passage for men and horses ; and while
I was occupied in examining the Brama, my assistants amused themselves by galloping
over the extensive sandy plain, 6000 feet above the level of the ocean, much to
the gratification of the attendant natives. The soil of the Tenger (wide or spacious)
hills is extremely fertile, consisting of a deep vegetable mould, accumulated for
many ages on the sand and débris thrown up from the mountain. Vegetables of
northern latitudes, potatos, cabbages, onions, &c., &c., are planted by the natives in
great abundance for the supply of the markets of Pasuruhan and Surabaya. European
fruits, as apples and peaches, are also raised; as well as wheat, and other
northern grains. Bice refuses to grow, and the coco palm produces no fruit. Most
of the plants of the higher regions of the island are also found, with several
which appear to be peculiar to this mountain.” — Map of the Island of Java,
with the Geographical Preface, &c., of Plantæ Javanicæ Kariores, by Thomas
Horsfield, M. D.
Several of the volcanic cones of Java are naked of vegetation at their tops, being
covered with lava thrown out by late eruptions ; but more generally, the successive
eruptions have covered the declivities with débris arranged in regular strata, and
vegetation has been going on for many ages. The great central chain itself consists
of independent mountains connected by low ranges, forming aggregately, a consecutive
s“ i i single in some localities. The volcanos afford examples of every kind
of volcanic product, as lava, tufa, obsidian, sulphur, and ashes m a high state of ÜigflSffi of the great central is a range of low mountains skirting the
southern shore of the island, seldom exceeding 3000 feet high, called in Javanese,
kandang literally “ war drums,” possibly from the columnar form of the rock composing
them. This is thought to have been produced by an agency distinct from
that which gave rise to the central chain. In some places this low chain comes mto
contact with the high central one, and covers its basis; but it is not like it stratified,
although consisting also of volcanic materials, chiefly basalt. Agates, chalcedony,
flint, ¿ id petrified wood are found in it. The southern shore of the island is frequently
bounded by steep and often precipitous piles of trap. Low ranges of hme-
stone are seen in the low lands of the eastern parts of the island. In the western
part of it, where it is nearest to Sumatra, a few boulders of granite are occasionally
found ; but, as a general rule, this rock forms no part of the geological
COHotUsprüiS arlfrequent in many parts of the island, generally at the basis of
the volcanos, and several of them strongly impregnated with carbonic acid. Mud
volcanos exist in the low lands, yielding munate of soda for culmary purposes,
the most remarkable of which are mentioned under the head of Grobagan.
T h e v a l l e y s of J a v a are innumerable, but its extensive plains are not above six m
number. In the first section of the island, or its eastern end, there is no considerable
plain ; in the second only one, that of Bandpng. These two constitute the country
of the Sunda nation, in which, therefore, there is but a single plain of great extent.
In the third and fourth sections there are four great plains, those of Surakarta,
Madiyun, Kâdiri, and Malang; and in the fifth, constituting the eastern portion of
the island, there are two, those of Bandawasa and Pugar. All these plains of the
country of the Javanese, are bounded to the east and west by mountains varying
from 8000 to above 11,000 feet high, which furnish them with a perennial supply
of water for irrigation, such as the Alps furnish to the plain of Lombardy.
Although the valleys of Java be frequently narrow, some of them are spacious,
and of at least equal fertility with the plains. That of EAdu, in the centre of the
island is an example. This lies between the mountains Sundara, (the beautiful,)
and Sumbing, (the notched,) 9650 and 10,350 feet; and Mârapi, (the volcano,)
and Màrbabu, (the nurse,) 8640 and 9590 feet high. I t must also be added,
that the long alluvial tract which runs along the greater part of the northern side
of the island, is of the nature of an extensive plain. ..
Java is singularly deficient in lakes. It has no extensive collection of water, salt
or fresh, and no large lagune connecting with the sea. There exist, however, a few
beautiful mountain lakes. One of these lies within the mountain Wilis (the green),
which parts the plains of Madiyun and Kâdiri, and is known by the name of Gâbai,
literally, the slave or servant. There is a second in the province of Chenbon, known
by the Sanscrit name of Tâlaga, or the reservoir, and this gives its name to the
district in which it lies. A third is in the province of Pasuruhan and called Banumla, or
the blue-water. In Java, however, there are several extensive marshes in the native
language rawa, which, in the season of the rains, become lakes, are navigated and
have fisheries. The largest in the island is within the province of Bañumas, and
close on the southern shore. This is called the Bawa-tuna, which literally signifies
“ deaf morass.” Another considerable one lies in the district of Damak on the
northern side of the island, under the range of hills called Prawata, a name, however,
which is itself the Sanscrit for “ mountain.” . : ,
The rivers of Java, especially on its northern side, are almost innumerable, but
from the form of the island, they are of comparatively small size, none of them
navigable for vessels of burden, and few even for boats beyond the reach of the tide.
All of them are, more or less, obstructed by mud or sand bars at their mouths.
While, however, they afford but slender convenience to trade, they are excellently
adapted for irrigation by their nimble flow and almost perennial supply of water,
qualities to which Java probably owes more for its immemorial civilisation, than
even to the great fertility of its soil. Few of the rivers of Java have specific names,
taking their appellations generally from the places they pass by, and changing them
with every new one, a circumstance which may, perhaps, be owing to their small size