A T L A S OF AUSTRALIA—1S86.
;s of the African o Arabii I deserts. On the
the ciiinato oxliibits all tUe
where equatorial cuiTouts •
able foi- clearness, possesses
under a tropical and somi-trc
rents doiuinato; and the air, Tvliich is rsmark-
•ssesses the liuiuidity imparted to it by the oceaji
jmi-tropieal sun. With regard to its effect on the
imatB of Australia is perhaps unoqaaUed for its
Lcalth-produeiug qualities. In this respect, lioweyer, thoro is considei
able variety. Of the whole continent the parts where all the
surroundings tend in the iliroction of salubrity, are perhaps the elevated
portions of the south and east coasts. In the south the air ia
,ud s. .s the .atb of ai The!
slopes around Adelaide are well known for their bcnafieial effects
sufferers from pnlmonary complaints. On the tablelands of the
south part of the east coast the atmosphere possesses, in connection
with its dryness, a bracing and exhilam hat is partiou-
,0 the relaxing
mples of this
id Glen Innes
larly invigorating to those who have long been subjt
influences of the sea-breessos. Perhaps the best
bracing effect ai-e espei-ienced in the Orange, Coomi
districts in New South "Wales, and in the Downs districts in Queensland.
The climate in the northern parts of the continent is dccidodly
lioracter,
that is found to obtain within torrid clin
tlie periodicity of
1. Thero is a season during
which heavy falls of rain a
this is followed by one of a
from the one to the otbi
phenomena on a s<
part of the contin.
.nspicuous, called " The Wet Season";
¡irely opposite character. The change
generally associated with electrical
iknown in colder regions. The winds in this
sume the regularity of the Trades or Mon-
Only within a very liiuitod area compared with its whole surface,
can it be said there is a severo climate. On the more elevated parts
of the tablelands of tho south-east coast, that is in the neighbourhood
of the Australian Alps aud the south borders of New South Wales,
more particularly perhaps near the summits of the Alps, and tho more
rugged portions of the iluniong range, weather is experienced in July
and August that would be considered bleak and wintry in the extreme.
At Kiandi-a, which is the most nlevated town in AustrnUa, the winter
is exceptionally severe, and possesses all the rigour of n Scotch
climate. In this part of New South Wales snow and ice are frequently
the rule in the winter months, and dnring this period of the year the
ojiportunity for labour in the field is considerably limited. Judged
by its mean temperature for the whole year the climate of Kiandra
would corapai-e with that of Edinburgh in Scotland. In no part of
Australia do we have tho snow and ice of one winte:
succeeding winters, until the snow becomes an avah
1 to that of
a glacier. Oucasionally snow may be seen on th
ind the ice
Victorian Alps almost through the following sumiuf
its form bug after deposit in many of the ravinei
goi^es of tlio Muniong range, where the rays of the
•accessible
trate. Such instances, however, must be regarded
ever peneas
ceptiou than the rule. The climate of Au.sti-alia is
the eswhich
treines occur very frequently. Years will succeed each other in which
02:-
tho rainfall is far below the general avoi-age, and dj'ought, with all its
miseries and hardships, will only disappear, to re-appear when the
ttnnpoi-ary effects of a short change have vanished under a scoi^hing
mid-day sun. This has been known to last until the pasture-fields
become reduced almost to bare gi'ound, the grass burnt up for the
winl of moisture, and even some of the rivers dried up in their beds.
Droughts aud seasons that are regarded as favourable to the agriculturist,
are often followed by long periods when rains and deluge
become the ruling feature, aud all the rivers are in a chronic state
of overflow. The great floods of the
are examples of an excessive rainfall o
It is now well-kno\vn that it was the \
that produced the Soods in the Macqua
stsnd-still iu his progress west. So c<
the down-pour of the watery clement di
s if tho effect of s
s 1852, 1860, and 1870,
east coast of Australia,
•asous of 1817 and 1818
hich brought Oxley to a
led and heavy has boon
some yeai-s that it would
almost appea waterspout had been t
fevred to the land.
During di-ought tho cattle and sheep of the settlers frequently
perish from want, and ou occasions of excessive rainfall they are often
overwhelmed by the escaping flood-w 11 ti-rs. From a rainfall registering
over sixty inches iu some parts of the east and south-east coasts,
we have every gradation, down to less than live inches per annum in
the dry pkius of the interior. This smallness of rainfall in many pans
of the inland plains acts on the vegetation, and this iu tui-n reucta
ou tho rainfall. It has been frequently observed that the presenca of
forest trees considerably influences the amouut of rainfall in a given
locality.
Perhaps the most oppressive featur connection with
;i-alian climate is what is known as the hot wind. It is similar in
;haracter to the Sirocco which visits the shores of Italy and other
lountries in the south of Europe. The hot wind occurs in the summer
nonths in Australia, and is the direct result of an overheated interior.
;t seldom lasts long, but its enervating effects arc felt by the best
Temperature.—That the temperature genei-ally iu tho southern
hemisphere is lower than that which obtains tliroughont the northern
lalf of our globe, is a fact, the truth of which has been established by
careful observation j that is to say, any given isotherm on the southern
side of tho Equator, would assume a position, on the wholo, nearer the
equinoctial line than a line of equal temperature in the northern hemisphere.
The reason for this is found iu the general distribution of land
md water on the Earth's sui-face. and the fact that the absorption of
leat is much more rapid in connection with land than water. From
mch premises may easily be deduced the fact, substantiated by
experience and observation, that, taken as a whole, tho mean annual
temperature of Australia is considerably less than that which obtains
in a coiTesponding position north of the Equator. Unless when local
causes of a minor charactor exert an influence, the sum of which is
Inappreciable in the general result, this law mil be found to hold good
particulariy as well as generally. For instance, Eden, in New South
Wales, which is situated in latitude S"" south, has a mean annual
¡empewture sis degi'ees less than that of Messina, iu Sicily, which is
n latitude 38° 11' north. Many examples of thU kind, where other
jlemeuts, such as proximity to or distance from tho ocean, are equal,
:ould be given to show that the temperature of Australia is consideribly
less than that of a coiTCsponding area similarly situated north of
;he Equator
Though it can be shown that the sea-coast and tablelands of
Australia, which occupy a very considerable part of its surface, exliibit
a mean tempei-ature less than that of places iu tho same latitude in
Europe, yet it cannot be denied that a very large portion, consisting of
the plams of the interior, possesses a climate in summer so intensely
hot as to resemble somewhat the desert tracts in the north of Africa.
Taking, however, into consideration the low temperature of these
interior regions in winter, caused by the more rapid radiation of the
heat by the land, the general resiJt is not sensibly affected. In tho
interioi', in the mouth of December, the temperature in the shade
frequently rises to 100" Par., and occasionally reaches 120o. On the
east coast of Australia the mean shade temperature in the siumner
months ranges from 60° in the south to about 95° iu the north. On
the north coast the climate is a tropical one, while the south coast
ill the mildness aud amenities of a temperate environment.
Winds.—From tho position of Australia—partly within the torrid
zone and partly within the temperate—it is not easy to state any
fixed principles iu regard to prevailing winds. Situated on tho
edge of the great trade winds belt, there is obseiwable a certain
regularity in the winds which prevail at pai-ticular times of the year.
In tho north-east winds of tho southern portion of tho east coast, and
the gi'adual approach to a south-east current in the northern parts of
the same coast, it is not difficult to recognise the southern trade wind
partly deflected from its true courae by the disturbing influence of
the land. During the summer months this is the most prominent
feature in conncction with the aerial cun-ents of our conttnent. Generally
speaking, on the seaboard of Australia during the months of
December, .January, and Februarj-, the wind is on the shore, and
assumes all the characteristics of a monsoon, or season wiud. Ou the
east coast the (iroat Dividing Kange considerably raodiflos tho general
direction of this current, and otfei-s n barrier—oue which it seldom
surmounts—to its further jjrogress inland. With a falling barometer
aud north-east winds, iu tho summer months, occur suddeu storms from
tho south, popularly known as " southeriy bursters." These changes
are geuei-ally accompauicd with electric phenomena—often in the form
of thuuder-storms. "Southerly bursters" are violent while tlicy
last, and cause a rapid fall in temperature. They are hailed by the
colonists as a modifying influence on an ovoi-heated and op])ressive
atmosphere. The indications aud offect of these storm-winds aro
well described by the Government Astronomer of Xew South Wnl.'s,
in his re-marks on climate, published iu 1883. Jfr. liiissell says:—
" The approach of the true burster is indicated by a peculiar roll of
"cloiiils, which, when once seen, cannot be mistaken; it is just above
"the south horizon aud extends on either sido of it 15° or 20°, aud
"looks as if a thiu sheet of cloud woi-o being rolled up like a scroll by
"tho advancing wiud."
"That sudi is really the case uiay be seen when it is dose t
t looks as if the clouds wei'c rolliug up from out of tho ndvi
ivind. Th>it umch of tho force of the gale is expended iu ti
and
A U S T R A L I A .
"rush aud battle with opposing muds, is proved by the fa«t that the
" progress of the gale is usually only about two-thirds tho velocity of
"the wind."
"Clouds of dust, which penetrate everywhere, announce the
"arrival of the wind; scud flies by overhead with great i-apidity,
" being sometimes less thau 2,000 feet high; rain may follow, but, if
"so, thunder aud lightning come first."
" The velocity of tho wind is in most cases greatest mtliin the
"first two hours, and varies from thirty to seventj- miles per hour,but
" i s usually fi-om fifty to sixty, aud the rate of progi'ess aloug the
"coast about forty miles per hour."
" Tho change of wiud is sometimes veiy sudden; it may be fi'osh
"north-east, and in ten minutes a gale from the south. Hence, vessels
"not on tho look-out are sometimes caught unprepared, and suffer
In winter the westerly winds following the sun as it recedes north,
through the obliquity of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, prevail
over tho greater part of tho Australian continent, interspersed
with storms from the south,
In attempting to ti-ace the origin of tho monsoon winds of the
Australian coast, it is not diflicult to arrive at a conclusion as to the
cause. It is one with that which encircles the globe, giving force to
the Trades and motion to the zephyr. In summer tho air in the interior
of Austi-alia becomes much more heated than that above its
watery environment. A difference in density is thereby at onco
created, and the genera! equilibrium disturbed. The heated air of the
interior ascends, to become added to the upper current of hot aiiwhich
sets south from the equator, and the comparatively cool air from
the suiTounding ocean rushes in from all sides to fill the void, in turn
to be heated aud to rise to air of an equal den.sity. From these facts
also we may gather the true explanation as to the origin and cause of
the liot winds winch aro occasionaUy felt on the coast. In muter the
more rapid radiation of heat by the land impresses the westerly wind
which blows aci'oss its surface with that penetrating cold which frequently
chai-acterisus it.
Thus, the great interior, acting under tlie same cause, produces
the hot winds of summer aud the cold ivinds of winter.
Rainfall.—The rainfall in tho coast districts of Australia, with the
exception of the seaboard of tho Groat Australian Bight, is abundant.
In the north part of tho continent tho rainfall is governed by the
causes which produce periodicity within tro|ncal regions. On tho south
and east coasts it varies between from ten to fifteen inches, in the neighbourhood
of Spencer's Gulf, in South Australia, to seventy inches
annually in the district of the Tweed river, in New South Wales, and
a portion of south-eastern Queensland. The high average ia the neighbourhood
of Point Danger is owing to tho proximity of the Jlacpliersou
range, a lateral spur from the main Cordillera, which projects
to the coast-line iu this iiart, and causes an increased condensation in
the vajiour-laden clouds before they proceed inland. On the tablelands
tho general average is less, though in the district of Kiandra
there is a fall of over sixty inches annually. On tho southern part
of the eastern tableland the rainfall reaches a yearly average which
ranges from thirty-five to forty-five inches. Farther north it varies
between twenty-tive aud forty inches per annum.
On tho north coast, tropical rains occur generally with northwest
or north-east muds.
Tapon>ladeu clouds, borne inland from tho sea, frequently
deposit their moisture in crossing tho mountain chains; many of
tho clouds are low, and in increasing their elevation to surmount the
barrier, condensation takes place. Thus, as they proceed inland,
thoy becomo dry. On the central plains tho rainfall dwindles fi-om
25 inches annually in tho more favouivd localities on the outskirts,
down through evei-y gradation of a scanty supply to less than 5 inches,
and even none in some of the moro desert poi-tions of the interior.
On the cast coast tho niinfall is heavy, and frequently so great
that floods in the river» are tho consequence.
In the mouth of Januaiy, 1885, in the district of Cootam.mdi-a, in
New South Wales, JOJ inches fell in the short space of 48 liours.
So great was tho dowu-poiir that a strong railway embankment
collapsed uuder the imuionse pressua-e caused by the escaping waters,
and the wreckage of a train subsequently was the result.
Oroughts.—Long periods of exceptionally dry weather constitute,
perhai)s, tho most dreaded feature of Australian climate to agriculturist
and pnstoralist. Preparod only for the exigencies of ordinary
seasons, tiie sheep-farmer watches the gi-adual approach of the drought,
and its increase iu iutuusity, with a fear as to tho result on his flocks
that is inspii'od by tho experience of tiie past. Thoy are regarded by
not a few as iucidentnl to Australian climate alone. Tliis is certainly
uot the case. Nor can it be said that tho droughts of Austraba ai-o
more sweeping in their evil eftcct
If smalluess of rainfall alone wo
their devastating qualities would a
s than those of other countries.
the gove .ristic.
Australia, however,
thero ai'H certain aggravating circumstances which magnify the
destroying power on tho vegetable and animal kingdoms.
In many of tho countries of tho old world a high state of cultivation
rtnidors the land less sensible to the want of rain, in others the
cloudy condition of tho atmosphere deprives tho sun's rays of a large
proportion of thoir evaporating power. On the treeless pluius of tho
interior of Australia this drying, withering force is exerted under a
clear sky, without any retarding influence wliatevei-. It ia uot, therefore,
to be wondered at that grass becomes burnt up, sheep and cuttle
suffer from ^vant, and rivers which travei-se these vast plains cease to
Di'ou^ arly ) much feared at tho
tbej s of ¿
doubt that many descriptious iu connection with this subject aro very
m\icb exaggerated. The effects of these long rainless periods aro
much moro limited now than they wore in tho days of the ¡noneer
settlers. Then a destruction of the crops threatened the lives of the
wholo community; now, except perhaps in regard to trade, a drought
is narrowed iu its effects to tho squatting and agricultural population
of one section of a colony.
This partial charactor of droughts has become more noticeable as
the population has exteudcd throughout the land. When the first
scttlei-s clustered around only one centre, a drought which ombraced
that ai-ea threatened all with the same famine; as several centres
became established, it was discovered that the greatest scarcity often
co-oxisted with abundauco iu other parts of the continent. The
direct tendency of increase iu tho population is to further minimise tho
effects of drought.
The advancement of science also points to the possibDity in the
future, by conservation of the water that escapes to the sea annually
as floods, and the presei-vation of surplus food, of robbing these
droughts of their terrors, and of making their passage over tho land
comparatively harmless and unfolt. This, however, can only be
effected when the farmer and pastoralist have ceased to treat them as
accidents of climate, and have been taught by their recurrence to
prepare for them in the proper season. Thus, when recognised as a
necessary element in the cosmical scheme, they will be anticipated,
aud provision made accordingly. All pi-oper occupation of tho soil
points clearly to such aims on tho part of those who depend on its
FLORA-—Tho vegetation indigenous to Australia diffei-s in a verjlarge
degree from that of other parts of tho world. Food-plants, such
as fruits, grains, and esculent roots, are on the greater part of its
surface to a vei-j large extent uurepresented. This fact has pressed
very heavily on explorers aud others attempting to travel long
distances iu the Austi'alian bush. It is well known to all who have
any experience, that no dependence can be placed on the natural
capabilities of the counti'y for the supply of food. When the
provisions, therefore, obtained at tho last settlement have become
vcary, hungr;
zation has been reached onco d
death by starvation. The latt<
the past been the fate of the i
Though species of the jilants
plentiful, there is no scarcity
the surface of Australii
•voller S hold out until civilitakothe
n
has very fi'cquently in the history of
rly explorer and Australian pioneer,
its which produce food for man are not
ity of vegetation on the greater part of
Trees (many of them of giant stature)
t profusion in all the coast districts, and extending
across tho mountain regions far into tho interior. On most
of the plains they occiu' principally iu clumps, and show a better
growth on the margins of rivers. Generally speaking, the trees
near tho coast atFtain a greater height aud diameter, and are more
valuable for thoir timber. In the mountain regions they do not
usually reach either tho height or .thickness of trunk that obtiiins
nearer the sea, and tho wood is frequently crooked and of a very
inferior quality. On the plains the timber is almost useless for
commercial purposes. In the interior, where tho timber of tho
coast is dear and scarce, certain kinds of local wood aro in use for
various purposes, such as tho construction of houses and fences.
The native pine is, perhaps, that which lends itself most readily to
the wants and necessities of the inland settlers. Compared witli
tho timber in the vicinity of the ocean, however, it is decidedly
inferior.
Among tho tree-growths which stand as giants in their strength
and distinguish the Australian forests from those of older countries,
we find tho great Eucalyptus family, or gum-trees. From these
aro obtained woods of a very durable character and eminently
suited to ship-building and house-construction. Many members of •