of the stream in times of flood, when the waters of the
river are higher than those of the lake.
The Wulur lake, below the junction of the Sind river
with the Jelam, appears to be similar in appearance to
that close to the town, and, like it, to owe its extent in
part to artificial means. Its dimensions are, however,
much greater. There are several large marshy tracts in
different parts of the plain, which, by a little engineering,
might also be converted into lakes: one in particular,
near Avantipura, is quite under water in spring, though
in summer and autumn it is only a swamp.
The climate of Kashmir is the same as that of the
interior valleys of the Himalaya, but modified by its
extreme western position, which brings it within the influence
of the spring rains which prevail in Affghanistan
and the countries on the lower mountain course of the
Indus. There are at least four months of winter; and
in general a good deal of snow falls. March and April
are very rainy; the summer months mostly dry and fine.
The periodical rains of India cannot be said to extend
into Kashmir; but in July and August showers and
thunder-storms are said to be frequent. The spring
and autumn are unhealthy seasons. In the former, the
cold rainy weather affects those who have already suffered
from the malaria produced by the action of a powerful
sun on neglected swamps. The abandonment of cultivation,
in consequence of the long oppression of the
country under a foreign government, has been the cause
of the increase of marshy ground. The river in seasons
of flood rises higher than the level of the lowest portion
of the alluvial land, and is only excluded (as in Holland)
by means of artificial works along the course of the river.
By the omission to repair these bunds, or dykes, a large
extent of country which might be under cultivation is
left in a state of swamp.
There is no natural forest on any part of the open
plain of Kashmir, and the cultivated trees are not numerous
; the plane, poplar, and willow are all common,
with numerous fruit-trees, chiefly walnuts, apples, apricots,
cherries, and quinces. A mulberry is also common,
the dried specimens of which are in no way distinguishable
from those of the common white mulberry
of Europe, with which I have compared it. The
vines are trained up the poplar-trees, rising to then-
very tops, and hanging down from their summits. A
species of Celtis, which is commonly planted around the
town, is, I think, the most tropical of all the Kashmirian
trees, being common in the warmer valleys of the outer
Himalayas; it is, however, I think, Celtis australis, L.,
a species which is a native of western Asia and eastern
Europe, and appears to find its eastern limit in the
Himalaya.
At the time of my arrival in Kashmir, the fruit-trees
were in full blossom; the wild vegetation had, however,
made very little progress, only the earliest plants
being in flower. The spring flora was eminently European
in character; not only the genera, but many of
the species, being identical with those of our own island.
Cruciferce were the most abundant natural order ; and,
among many others, I collected Draba verna, Capsella,
Erysimum, Alliaria, Turritis glabra, and European species
of Lepidium, Thlaspi, Alyssum, and Sisymbrium. Other